ABSTRACT Introduction: New SARS-CoV-2 strains recently detected cause an increase in morbidity and mortality not only in the elderly. Identifying the vulnerable population is a challenge. Objective: To estimate the prevalence of adults vulnerable to severe COVID-19 and its associated sociodemographic factors. Methods: An observational cross-sectional analytic study using data from the 2018-2020 National Health Survey. It included 13 684 individuals aged 19 years and over. The structured questionnaire included information on the sociodemographic variables, personal and family pathological antecedents, and records of blood pressure and biochemistry tests, among others. Vulnerability to severe COVID-19 was developed based on the proposal from the CDC Atlanta, USA and it was the dependable variable. Results: The prevalence of adults vulnerable to severe COVID-19 in the country was 68.3%. At higher risk are the elderly (86.5%), non-white individuals, and those who perceived themselves as having poor living conditions. For the elderly, being male was a protective factor, while living in the western region of the country was a risk factor. High blood pressure (39.4%), smoking (22.2%), obesity (16.6%) and chronic respiratory diseases (10.6%) were the most frequent health problems. Conclusions: Vulnerability to severe COVID-19 in the Cuban adult population is high; consequently, it is considered a serious health problem. Non-modifiable factors are positively associated with vulnerability: being an older adult, female, non-white skin color, and suffering from hypertension; while “poor” living conditions is the only modifiable factor.

RESUMEN Introducción: Nuevas cepas de SARS-CoV-2 detectadas recientemente provocan aumento de la morbilidad y mortalidad no solo en adultos mayores. Conocer la población vulnerable es un reto. Objetivo: Estimar la prevalencia de adultos vulnerables a la COVID-19 severa y sus factores sociodemográficos asociados. Métodos: Estudio observacional transversal analítico con datos provenientes de la encuesta nacional de salud 2018-2020, que incluye 13 684 personas de 19 y más años de edad. El cuestionario estructurado provee la información de variables sociodemográficas, antecedentes patológicos personales e historia familiar, mediciones de la presión arterial y bioquímicas, entre otras. Vulnerabilidad a COVID-19 severa se construyó según propuesta del CDC de Atlanta, EE. UU y fue la variable dependiente. Resultados: La prevalencia de adultos vulnerables a COVID-19 severa en el país fue de 68,3 %, riesgo superior en el adulto mayor (86,5 %), en los no blancos y en la percepción de condiciones de vida “malas”. En adultos mayores ser hombre protege, en tanto, fue riesgo, vivir en la región oriental del país. La hipertensión arterial (39,4 %), seguida del tabaquismo (22,2 %), la obesidad (16,6 %) y las enfermedades respiratorias crónicas (10,6 %) fueron las afecciones médicas más frecuentes. Conclusiones: La vulnerabilidad a la COVID-19 severa en la población adulta cubana es elevada, consecuentemente, constituye un serio problema de salud. Factores no modificables se asocian positivamente a la vulnerabilidad: ser adulto mayor, mujer, color de piel no blanca y padecer hipertensión arterial, en tanto, las “malas” condiciones de vida es el único que puede ser modificado.

ABSTRACT Introduction: In Cuba, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is the sixth leading cause of death. There is insufficient knowledge concerning its scope. Objective: To determine the prevalence and characteristics of the disease in Havana (2017-2018). Methods: A multicenter, cross-sectional study coordinated by Iniciative Burden of Lung Disease. It included 349 non-hospitalized people aged 40 and over from four family doctor´s offices (random selection). A questionnaire with sociodemographic variables on previous medical diagnosis and smoking was applied. A spirometric study was conducted before and after salbutamol administration to determine airflow limitations, and the disease was classified as mild, moderate, severe, and very severe. Results: Overall prevalence was 20.9% (95 % CI: 16.6-25.2); with males accounting for 25.3%; and females for 17.7%. It increased with age. Mild forms of the disease affected 60% of the population; they were more common in females (67%) than in males (severe forms, 22%). Previous spirometry was performed in 15% of respondents. Fourteen people (19.1%) had previously been diagnosed with pulmonary emphysema, chronic bronchitis, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Smoking prevalence was 36%, with a higher percentage in the severe forms of the disease. One-third (31.7%) were exposed to second-hand tobacco smoke at home or at work, with a daily average exposure of 5 hours. Conclusions: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is a major health problem in Havana due to its high prevalence and underdiagnosis. An increase in prevalence is predicted given the demographic dynamics in the country and the high level of tobacco consumption among the population. Therefore, more comprehensive management of this preventable disease is required.

RESUMEN Introducción: En Cuba la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica es sexta causa de mortalidad general. Existe insuficiente conocimiento sobre su magnitud. Objetivo: Determinar la prevalencia y características de la enfermedad en La Habana (2017-2018). Métodos: Estudio multicéntrico transversal, coordinado por Iniciative Burden of Lung Disease, incluyó 349 personas no institucionalizadas de 40 años y más de cuatro consultorios médicos (selección aleatoria). Se aplicó cuestionario con variables sociodemográficas relacionadas con diagnóstico médico previo y tabaquismo. Se realizó estudio de espirometría, pre-pos aplicación de salbutamol para determinar limitación del flujo aéreo y clasificó severidad de la enfermedad en leve, moderada, severa y muy severa. Resultados: Prevalencia global 20,9 % (IC 95 %:16,6-25,2); en hombres 25,3 %, en mujeres 17,7 %. Se incrementó con la edad. Formas leves 60 %, más frecuentes en mujeres 67 % vs. severas en hombres, 22 %. Espirometría previa 15 % de encuestados. Catorce encuestados (19,1 %) tenían el diagnóstico médico previo de enfisema pulmonar, bronquitis crónica o enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica. Prevalencia de tabaquismo 36,0 %, mayor porcentaje en formas severas. La tercera parte (31,7 %), expuestos al humo de tabaco ajeno, en hogar o trabajo; media de exposición diaria 5 h. Conclusiones: La alta prevalencia y subdiagnóstico de enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica la convierten en un importante problema de salud en La Habana. Se pronostica incremento de la prevalencia relacionado con la dinámica poblacional en el país y el alto consumo de tabaco en la población. Se requiere un manejo más integral de esta enfermedad prevenible.

ABSTRACT Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) represent one of the greatest challenges for development of the 21st century due to their devastating social, economic and public health impact. The objective of this article are to describe the evolution and risk factors for NCDs in Cuba, mainly in the period 1990–2015, to outline actions undertaken by the Ministry of Public Health of Cuba, and to highlight the most important challenges with a focus on their prevention and control. The information is based on data collected and published by the Directorate of Medical Records and Health Statistics, research on risk factors, other studies and documentation of comprehensive actions. Mortality in Cuba is determined by four major health problems: cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, chronic diseases of the lower respiratory tract and diabetes mellitus, which together cause 68.0% of deaths. Cancer presents a growing trend, and chronic kidney disease emerges as a serious health problem. Cuba has a known baseline on risk factors, and hypertension and tobacco consumption are the main factors related to NCDs mortality. In line with the importance of these diseases, there are milestones and interventions with a positive impact, as well as gaps and challenges within the framework of the World Health Organization’s Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs.

RESUMEN Las enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT) representan uno de los mayores desafíos para el desarrollo en el siglo XXI, debido al devastador impacto social, económico y de la salud pública que provocan. El propósito de este artículo es describir la evolución y los factores de riesgo de las ENT en Cuba, principalmente en el período 1990–2015, reseñar las acciones emprendidas por el Ministerio de Salud Pública y destacar los desafíos más importantes para su prevención y control. La información contenida proviene de los datos colectados y publicados por la Dirección de Registros Médicos y Estadísticas de Salud, investigaciones sobre los factores de riesgo, otros estudios fundamentados y la documentación de acciones integrales. La mortalidad en Cuba está determinada por cuatro grandes problemas de salud: enfermedades cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, enfermedades crónicas de las vías respiratorias inferiores y diabetes mellitus, que en conjunto causan el 68,0% de los fallecimientos. La tendencia del cáncer es al ascenso y la enfermedad renal crónica emerge como un grave problema de salud. Cuba cuenta con una línea de base conocida sobre los factores de riesgo, de ellos la hipertensión y el consumo de tabaco son los principales relacionados con la mortalidad por ENT. En consonancia con la importancia de estas enfermedades se aprecian hitos e intervenciones de impacto positivo, así como brechas y desafíos en el marco del Plan de Acción Mundial de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para el enfrentamiento a las ENT.

RESUMO As doenças não transmissíveis (DNT) representam um dos maiores desafios do século 21 para o desenvolvimento devido ao desvastador impacto social, econômico e de saúde pública que elas causam. O objetivo deste artigo é descrever a evolução e os fatores de risco das doenças não transmissíveis em Cuba, principalmente no período de 1990–2015, para delinear as ações realizadas pelo Ministério da Saúde Pública de Cuba e destacar os desafios mais importantes para sua prevenção e controle. A informação vem dos dados coletados e publicados pela Diretoria de Registros Médicos e Estatísticas de Saúde, pesquisa sobre fatores de risco, outros estudos fundamentados e documentação de ações abrangentes. A mortalidade em Cuba é determinada por quatro principais problemas de saúde: doenças cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, doenças crônicas do trato respiratório inferior e diabetes mellitus, que em conjunto causam 68,0% das mortes. O câncer tem uma tendência crescente, e a doença renal crônica surge como um grave problema de saúde. Cuba tem uma linha de base conhecida sobre os fatores de risco, dos quais a hipertensão e o consumo de tabaco são os principais relacionados à mortalidade por DNT. Em consonância com a importância dessas doenças, há marcos e intervenções com impacto positivo, bem como lacunas e desafios no âmbito do Plano de Ação Mundial da Organização Mundial da Saúde para enfrentar as doenças não transmissíveis.

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Systematic measurement of population physical activity levels is an important component of public health surveillance. OBJECTIVES Describe patterns of physical activity in the Cuban population aged 15–69 years and identify factors associated with regular physical activity. METHODS A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted using a complex sampling design, representative of urban and rural areas, sex and age groups, including 7915 individuals. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short format) was applied. The population was classified as active, irregularly active and sedentary, according to sex, age, marital status, education, skin color, employment and perception of health risk related to physical inactivity or overweight. Percentages, odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated and a multinomial regression model was fitted with active persons as the reference category. RESULTS Approximately 71% of the population self-classified as active, 23% as sedentary and 5.9% as irregularly active. Women had a higher probability of being sedentary (OR 2.51, CI 2.12–2.98) and irregularly active (OR 2.56, CI 95% 1.87–3.49). The probability of being sedentary increased with age (OR 1.19, CI 1.12–1.26), and also with the condition of being a homemaker, retired, or unemployed. Perceiving overweight as a high risk to health reduced likelihood of inactivity (OR 0.49, CI 0.29–0.83). CONCLUSIONS Some 7 of 10 Cubans are physically active. The groups with the highest probability of inactivity and irregular activity and associated factors have been identified through national application (for the first time) of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. The results should be taken into account for implementation of specialized strategies to promote systematic physical activity.

Es reciente la mención de la microcirculación y disfunción endotelial para explicar la fisiopatología de padecimientos de los cuales no se entendía su interrelación. La microcirculación no solo está comprometida en enfermedad sino que puede alterarse por condiciones a las que se enfrenta el anestesiólogo (agentes y técnicas anestésicas). Existe evidencia importante y creciente de que agentes anestésicos pueden alterarla; ¿su importancia?: en hipoperfusión puede empeorarse por otros factores (ventilación mecánica, vasoactivos, sedantes, opioides). En fase tardía del choque la participación de la circulación periférica soportando la perfusión tisular es débil hasta desaparecer; entonces: ¿es benéfico encaminar las terapias dirigidas por metas sólo macrovasculares? Se hacen importantes métodos que identifiquen su alteración tempranamente y encaminar terapias para su restauración: la evaluación clínica es rápida y reproducible; la medición de temperatura corporal determina indirectamente su alteración; existen otros métodos de evaluación de la microcirculación más objetivos: hoy en día la evaluación óptica mediante técnica con luz polarizada ortogonal espectral y campo oscuro lateral son la mejor aproximación. En choque hemorrágico es la alteración de la microvasculatura la que determina el grado de disfunción multiorgánica; para ello existen mecanismos compensatorios, lo cual reviste la importancia de su medición perioperatoria y uso en anestesia. Se han estudiado estrategias que mejoran la perfusión tisular (reclutamiento de la microcirculación). Por ser reciente su estudio se controvierte su utilidad; es necesario determinar el impacto clínico mediante ensayos clínicos controlados en protocolos de estrategia de reanimación, lo cual puede complementar la práctica anestésica perioperatoria actual.

Mentioning microcirculation and endothelial dysfunction to explain the pathophysiology of diseases whose relationship was not well understood is a recent phenomenon. Microcirculation is not only compromised by disease but can be altered by conditions that the anesthesiologist faces (agents and anesthetic techniques). There is significant and increasing evidence that anesthetic agents may alter it. The importance? In a state of hypoperfusion, it can be worsened by other factors (mechanical ventilation, vasoactive medications, sedatives, opioids). In shock's late stage, the support to tissue perfusion given by peripheral circulation is weak and disappears. Therefore, is it beneficial to direct targeted therapies only toward macrovascular goals? Methods for identifying early alteration and direct therapies for restoration are important. The clinical evaluation is rapid and reproducible, and measuring body temperature determines alteration indirectly. There are other methods to determine microcirculation objectively: nowadays, optical evaluation techniques using polarized orthogonal spectral light and sidestream dark-field are the best approach. In hemorrhagic shock the degree of organ dysfunction is determined by microvasculature's alteration. Compensatory mechanisms exist for this purpose, making its measurement and use in perioperative period important. Strategies have been studied to improve tissue perfusion (recruitment of microcirculation). The recentness of the study of microcirculation calls its usefulness into question. It is necessary to determine the clinical impact through controlled clinical trials with protocols on resuscitation strategy, which can complement the current perioperative anesthetic practice.

Chronic non-communicable diseases have been called the pandemic of the 21st century and constitute a high-priority public health challenge; hence growing interest in chronic disease risk factor surveillance. Cuba is implementing decentralized risk factor surveillance in each of its municipalities as part of a strategy to address non-communicable diseases. Decentralized surveillance with this level of detail and explicitly designed to inform municipal and provincial decisionmaking is unprecedented in Cuba. We describe the methodology for planning and implementing measurement of major risk factors in 12 municipalities in 10 provinces, as part of Cuba's National Surveillance System. The results have facilitated timely use of information and evidence-based decisionmaking at the local level.

Introduction: The lung cancer is a serious health problem in Cuba affecting both sexes. Its high incidence and mortality have a trend to increase more evident in women. Its diagnosis frequently is made in the advanced stages. Objectives: To standardize procedures allowing from the primary level of care a procedure organized for prevention and management of lung cancer emphasizing the persons in risk, as well as to contribute to reduce the late diagnosis of disease. Methods: To construction of algorithm authors took into account the main risk factors of lung cancer and among them that of great contribution: smoking. A structured sequence of steps was organized including the implementation of "strategy" of three A (to find out, to encourage, to advice) proposed by WHO, suitable for our context and modified when it was applied for the first time in passive smokers. The form was submitted to validation according to the expert criteria. Results: An algorithm was designed from the exploration of main risk factors of lung cancer, directed to systematize a preventive behavior of smoking, as well as the management systematics of individual in risk with the active participation of family physician and nurse over all the care process. The result of validation was satisfactory and the expert recommendations were incorporated. Final considerations: To achieve the diagnosis in earlier stages of disease and of the contribution to reduction of morbility and mortality which are challenges of current Cuban public health, we must to take into account the proposal of this form of prevention and appropriate management of lung cancer from the primary care level.

Introducción: El cáncer de pulmón es un grave problema sanitario en Cuba y afecta a uno y otro sexos. Su alta incidencia y mortalidad tienen una tendencia al incremento, más ostensible en mujeres. Su diagnóstico se realiza frecuentemente en etapas avanzadas. Objetivos: Estandarizar procederes que permitan, desde el nivel primario de atención, un procedimiento organizado para la prevención y el manejo del cáncer de pulmón, con énfasis en las personas en riesgo, así como contribuir a reducir el diagnóstico tardío de la enfermedad. Métodos: Para la construcción del algoritmo se tuvieron en cuenta los principales factores de riesgo del cáncer de pulmón, y entre ellos el de mayor contribución: el tabaquismo. Se organizó una secuencia estructurada de pasos que incluyó la aplicación de la estrategia de las 3 A (Averiguar, Animar, Asesorar), propuesta por la Organización Mundial de la Salud, adecuada a nuestro contexto y modificada, al ser aplicada por primera vez a fumadores pasivos. El modelo fue sometido a validación según criterios de expertos. Resultados: Fue construido el algoritmo que partió de explorar los principales factores de riesgo del cáncer de pulmón, orientado a sistematizar una conducta preventiva del tabaquismo, así como la sistemática de manejo del individuo en riesgo, con la participación activa del médico y la enfermera de la familia durante todo el proceso de atención. El resultado de la validación fue satisfactorio y se incorporaron las recomendaciones de los expertos. Consideraciones finales: Para el logro del diagnóstico en estadios más tempranos de la enfermedad y de la contribución a la reducción de la morbilidad y mortalidad, retos de la salud pública cubana actual, deberá tenerse en cuenta la propuesta de este modelo de prevención y adecuado manejo del cáncer de pulmón desde el nivel primario de atención.

Objectives: to determine the prevalence of atopic eczema and to describe its features in children and adolescents of La Habana, as well as its relation to asthma and rhinitis. Methods: a cross-sectional study was conducted applying the ISAAC methodology (International Study of Asthma and Allergies in the Childhood) adapted to national context. Included are 1 803 children (6-7 years) and 3 023 adolescents (13-14 years) from the urban students of Playa and Marianao municipalities during 2002-2003. Information was obtained from interviews with parents of children and adolescents. In analysis authors used the absolute and relative frequency in percentages, odds ratio and its 95 % confidence intervals. Results: prevalence accumulated of eczema symptoms was referred in approximately 4 of each 10 children: 38.3 % (CI 33.8-42.7) and in 2 of each 10 adolescents: 22.5 % (CI 20.1-25.0); the present prevalence in children and adolescents was of 22.2 % (CI 19.0-25.5) and 14.1 % (CI 12.4-16.1), respectively. During the first two years of life the 50 % of children start with the symptoms, which were more severe in 2 of each 10 students. The children presenting with symptoms of eczema had four times more risk of rhinitis (OR 1.9 CI 95 % 1.1-3.5) or asthma (OR 2.4 CI 95 % 1.6-3.6); in adolescents the risk of rhinitis increased up to 5 (OR 2.6 CI 95 % 1.4-4.9). Conclusions: it was evidenced a high prevalence of atopic dermatitis and its relevance as a health problem. Results were a basic guide to compare it with other cities of our country and with those of other regions; allowing to document trends at population scale and to assess the impact of future interventions.

Objetivos: determinar la prevalencia de eczema atópico y describir sus características en niños y adolescentes de La Habana, así como su relación con el asma y la rinitis. Métodos: estudio transversal que aplicó la metodología ISAAC (International Study of Asthma and Allergies in the Childhood) adaptada al contexto nacional. Incluyó 1 803 niños (6-7 años) y 3 023 adolescentes (13-14 años) de población escolar urbana en los municipios Playa y Marianao, durante los años 2002-2003. La información se obtuvo a partir de entrevistas a los padres de los niños y a los adolescentes. En el análisis se utilizaron estadígrafos de frecuencia absoluta y relativa en porcentajes, odds ratio y sus intervalos de confianza al 95 %. Resultados: la prevalencia acumulada de síntomas de eczema, fue referida en aproximadamente 4 de cada 10 niños: 38,3 % (IC 33,8-42,7) y en 2 de cada 10 adolescentes: 22,5 % (IC 20,1-25,0); la prevalencia actual en los niños y adolescentes fue 22,2 % (IC 19,0-25,5) y 14,1 % (IC 12,4-16,1) respectivamente. En los primeros 2 años de vida, el 50 % de los niños inició los síntomas, que fueron más severos en 2 de cada 10 escolares. Los niños con síntomas de eczema, tuvieron hasta 4 veces más riesgo de padecer rinitis (OR 1,9 IC 95 % 1,1-3,5) o asma (OR 2,4 IC 95 % 1,6-3,6); en los adolescentes el riesgo de padecer rinitis se elevó hasta 5 (OR 2,6 IC 95 % 1,4-4,9). Conclusiones: se evidenció una alta prevalencia de dermatitis atópica y su relevancia como problema de salud. Los resultados constituyeron una línea de base para la comparación con los de otras ciudades del país y con los de otras latitudes; permitieron documentar tendencias a escala poblacional y evaluar el impacto de futuras intervenciones.

INTRODUCTION: Tobacco and alcohol are currently the most widely consumed legal psychoactive substances in the world. They represent a heavy burden for health and society in almost all populations. Increasing consumption of both substances is a trend observed in women. OBJECTIVE: Describe the profile of women aged >15 years residing in urban areas of Cuba with respect to tobacco and alcohol consumption. METHOD: Basic information on tobacco and alcohol consumption by Cubans aged >15 years in urban areas was obtained from the Second National Survey on Risk Factors and Chronic Diseases (2001), a national descriptive cross-sectional study, the objective of which was to determine the frequency and epidemiological characteristics of the urban population's main chronic disease risk factors. Sampling design was complex stratified multi-stage cluster. Of a sample of 23,743 individuals, 22,851 were surveyed, representative of 6.8 million Cubans. A questionnaire and structured interview were used. Variables were tobacco and alcohol use, as well as sociodemographic factors: sex, age, educational level, skin color, marital status, type of full-time employment and perceived economic situation. Prevalence, with 95% confidence intervals, and male:female prevalence ratios were estimated. RESULTS: Women who smoked were predominantly aged 40-59 years; had completed less than university education; of black skin color; divorced; laborers, service workers or managers, and with a perceived economic situation as very poor. Women who consumed alcohol were predominantly aged 15-59 years, had at least middle school education, of mestizo or black skin color, of marital status other than widowed; there was no typical profile for occupation or perceived economic situation. Women who were both smokers and alcohol consumers were predominantly 20-59 years, of black or mestizo skin color, of marital status other than widowed; with no typical profile for educational level, occupation or perceived economic situation. CONCLUSIONS: The first nationwide socioeconomic profile of Cuban women using tobacco, alcohol or both constitutes a baseline for comparison to results of a new national study now under way, permitting evaluation of trends over time and effectiveness of prevention and control efforts.